Identification of opportunities in water service delivery: an approach based on the political economy of urban water supply in Indore

Abstract

In an increasingly urbanised world, it will be crucial to ensure that public services in urban areas deliver for poor people as well as the wider population. Funding and technical capacity for service provision are both typically more available in urban than in rural areas. However, it is also well known that governance and political economy factors play an important role in constraining and enabling effective service delivery. The effects of these factors can be shaped by physical and political-economic characteristics of the urban environment, as well as broader political context and sector-specific qualities. In addition, any ‘urban advantage’ does not apply evenly across an urban population; access to services differs markedly between individuals according to their wealth, education, location, and other social and economic characteristics. Before 1992, local level institutions did not have a constitutional status and had only a statutory status under state law. Thus, for instance, governance of urban areas was directly within the jurisdiction of the state government. This structure underwent a major change with the enactment of the 73rd and 74th Amendments of the Constitution of India in 1992, which marked a new era in the nature of local governance in rural and urban areas respectively. The 74th Amendment Act of the Constitution of India redefined the role, powers, functions and financial authority of urban local bodies (ULBs). These bodies were given constitutional protection for regular elections, powers, and financial devolution. The urban local bodies are classified into Nagar Panchayats, municipal councils and municipal corporations depending on the population. The Amendment entrusts these local bodies with the responsibility of providing basic services to their cities. Twelfth Schedule (Article 243 W) lists water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposes, planning for economic and social development, Public health, sanitation conservancy and solid waste management and others functions entrusted with the local bodies. Water is a highly politicised sector, in part because water meets a basic need and is a human right. Political economy (PE) issue are typically evident in interference from local governments and mayors in utility operations, the role of water in political campaigns, and the role of water in political campaigns, and patronage which diminishes the accountability of utility managers to consumers. Water in India is governed as a public good, with evolving yet disjointed awareness of its environmental, social and economic underpinnings. However, effective management of this limited resource requires a nexus approach to governance, which integrates the cause and effect of water on the environment, society and the economy. This necessitates a shift towards hydrological systems thinking and multi-stakeholder approach (Khemka, 2016).

The aim of this study to identify the opportunities for improving water service delivery through a study of the political economy of urban water supply. The research study aims to answer the following questions - 1. How the scarce resources like water, distributed across different socioeconomic spaces? 2. What is the type of resistances arises out of the reforms from various stakeholders? 3. How the governance and political economy factors play role in altering the distribution of water service? 4. How the different socio-economic spaces respond to the discrimination in terms of distribution of water? The findings were complementing the background of the study as there was a clear indication even under the same governing authority water supply and its delivery is not distributed evenly across spaces and people. There is a clear hint of spatial selectivity. More importantly, delivery of water service is getting affected by spaces inhabited by groups of people with different income and social status. Strata-I, which is comprising of a comparatively richer section of the society is far well served as compared to localities in Strata-II. Coverage of municipal water supply in Strata- I is 80% whereas in Strata-II is 40%. In fact, two of the four localities in Strata-II have no municipal water supply. Continuity of municipal water supply is 75 min (average) in Strata-I and 45 min (average) in Strata-II. The scarcity of municipal water supply is faced by 50% of the households in Strata-I whereas in Strata-II everyone was facing scarcity, especially during summer months. Further, no time is spent of households in Strata-I in coping with the scarcity as they all are having private bore wells and underground tanks at their home. Whereas households in Strata-II are not able to afford private bore wells and hence dependent on public tube wells and water tankers during the scarcity of water due to which on an average two hours is spent in coping with the scarcity. Stakeholders were identified from Administrative wing, Political wing and Community level associations. Four councillors from the four respective wards representing Political wing, four sub/assistant engineers of respective zones from the Administrative wing and three leaders of Rehwasi Sanghs (Resident Associations) from ward 37, 41 and 80. It was found that no Rehwasi Sangh was functional in any of the locality from Strata-II. In ward 17, even the Strata-I was lacking any functional Rehwasi Sangh. Semi-structured interviews were taken from all of them and the responses were then analysed. When asked about the satisfaction level of current distribution of responsibilities for water servicing in between the different levels of government in Indore, seven out of eleven were not satisfied. Stakeholders saying ‘Yes’ believe that Mayor-in-Council is enough to handle all the situation and zonal offices are performing well. Stakeholders saying ‘No’ believe that Rehwasi Sangh leaders want lower strata to be empowered by forming Mohalla Samitis (Mohalla Committees). Engineers demand more technical personnel at the zone level whereas Political leaders demand more power to them. When asked about identifying the issues in the water sector, ‘Cost Recovery’ was the highest voted (nine votes) issue in Indore according to all the stakeholders followed by ‘Governance & Management’ (six votes) and ‘Resource Stress’ (five votes). Least voted was ‘High Water Use’ (one vote). Political leaders are the ones voting for ‘Governance & Management’ as an issue, unlike engineers who chose ‘Cost Recovery’ as the only major issue prevailing in the water sector in Indore. When asked about their aspirations for improving the condition of the water sector in Indore, ‘Laying down of pipelines (coverage)’ & ‘Metering System’ are the highest voted (four votes) aspiration of the stakeholders. Followed by ‘Increasing water tanks’ (two votes) & ‘Daily supply’ (two votes). Increase in staff, modern machinery, leakage control, using locally available resources & maintenance of pipelines got one vote each. No stakeholder has ‘Eliminate illegal connection’ as their aspiration. Political leaders have ‘laying down pipelines’ as their priority aspiration while Engineers has ‘metering system’ as their aspiration. When asked about what can be improved/enhanced to improve the condition of water, Private Sector Participation (PSP) is ‘Very Unimportant’ for 55% of the stakeholders. The majority of them were political leaders. Whereas ‘Accountability’, ‘Equitable Access’ and ‘Efficiency’ are ‘Very Important’ for 91% of the stakeholders to improve. Further institutional check was carried out to see whether the governance provisions are in line with the acts/laws in Madhya Pradesh or not. It was found out that there were defunctional Wards’ Committees in all the four Zones surveyed, only the Administrative Wing is working at a Zonal level having three line departments of Water Supply, Revenue and Public Works. No Mohalla Committees have formed with a legal mandate and Resident Associations (Rehwasi Sangh) are functional at the community level. When inquired about the existence of elected councils and existence of civic groups, it was found out that Mayor (Chairperson) of the Council is directed elected. Councillors are also directly elected and ten out of them selected are in additional charge of the departments in Mayor-in-Council. Mayor selects the councillors for handling the departments with her own capacity and mandate. Leaders of Rehwasi Sangh – President, Secretary and Treasurer are democratically elected according their respective mandate. Thus, equity came out to be the most highlighting issue in Indore. There is a clear variation in the quality of service provided by the government to rich (StrataI) and poor strata (Strata-II) in each of the ward surveyed. This issue of equity is having both technical and non-technical causes at all levels. This result reinforces the role of governance (or political will) in determining service coverage and access. Empowering the lower levels of government will significantly improve the condition of such a scarce resource to a major extent. ‘Mohalla Samitis’ a muchneeded body at the lowest level is stuck in court. Hence, it is necessary to address the issue of equity, which is not being focused in Indore because of the so-called technical issues and glitches