Developing a capability-based framework to assess women's mobility inequity in urban areas: a case of Mumbai

Abstract

Transportation inequity remains a deeply embedded challenge in urban contexts, particularly for women, whose mobility needs are often marginalized in planning and policy frameworks. This research addresses those gaps by adopting a justice-oriented lens, applying Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach (CA) to assess women’s mobility as a matter of substantive freedom, not just infrastructural access. As part of this study, a comprehensive review of theories of justice was undertaken to evaluate normative frameworks for transport equity. The Capability Approach was identified as most appropriate due to its emphasis on individual agency, contextual conversion factors, and real freedoms to pursue valued life outcomes (Sen, 2005; Nussbaum, 2003; Pereira et al., 2017). Compared to distributive models such as the Rawlsian Difference Principle, the CA accounts for how personal, social, and environmental constraints interact to shape individuals’ abilities to convert resources into meaningful functionings (Vecchio & Martens, 2021; Bantis & Haworth, 2020). The city of Mumbai, widely recognized as one of India’s relatively safer urban environments for women (Nikore, 2021), was chosen as the study area. Despite this perception, deep-rooted inequities persist. In 2019, only 20% of women in Mumbai were employed, and of the total trips made, 80% of men’s trips were work-related, while only 17% of women’s trips were for employment purposes. Also, the share of women working from home or close to home in Mumbai remained significant between 2009 and 2019, reflecting ongoing constraints pertaining to mobility (Alam et al., 2022). This thesis is structured around four core objectives: To understand and contextualise the capabilities approach with reference to mobility; To document the female travel pattern and mobility perceptions in the study area; To measure mobility inequity and variations in capabilities attributed to travel; To propose interventions aimed at reducing mobility inequalities. The research was conducted in Ward F North of Mumbai, chosen for its heterogeneity in urban form and demographics. Micro-study areas included informal settlements (Ganesh Nagar and Deen Bandhu Nagar), government housing (CGS Colony), housing societies (in Wadala and Sion) and affluent neighbourhoods (Parsi Colony), offering a comprehensive spatial lens. A mixed-methods approach was adopted. Qualitative insights were gathered through interviews and focus groups to explore subjective experiences of mobility barriers. Quantitatively, the study constructed a Capability Index (CI) using Sen’s (2005) conversion factors, list of capabilities formulated by formulated by Nussbaum (2003), and transportation-specific functionings as stated Cao and Hickman (2019). Statistical tools such as correlation analysis, chi-square tests, and linear regression analysis were employed to evaluate associations between socio-demographic variables, travel characteristics and mobility capabilities. Findings reveal significant inequalities. The lowest CI scores were recorded for slum dwellers (0.59), elderly women aged 60+ (0.57), and homemakers (0.57), groups disproportionately affected by spatial exclusion, economic vulnerability, safety concerns, and unpaid caregiving responsibilities. The statistical analyses validated strong links between capability deprivation and variables such as age, income, employment status, and built environment. Based on the findings, the study proposes policy recommendations aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDGs 5, 10, and 11, to promote gender-inclusive, sustainable cities. The findings in different contexts for different user groups culminated in the formulation of a set of targeted interventions for marginalized groups in different parts of trip chains. By framing mobility as a fundamental human capability, this research contributes to a feminist, justice-oriented approach to urban transportation. It advocates for the integration of capability-based metrics into urban planning and policy and provides a replicable model for evaluating mobility equity in cities globally. Keywords: transportation inequity, Capability Approach, female travel behaviour, mobility opportunity, operationalisation of justice theories